Progress in Erosion Mechanism and Geomorphological Effects of High-Energy Outburst Floods
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摘要: 高能溃决洪水作为一种高量级、低频率的极端地表事件，其所具有的强烈侵蚀和重塑能力极大影响着地表形貌的演化. 近年来，有关高能溃决洪水的研究逐渐增多，然而相关的侵蚀机制与地貌效应仍缺乏系统性认识.通过系统梳理国内外高能溃决洪水侵蚀研究中的相关进展，总结了高能溃决洪水形成的大、中、小3种侵蚀地貌及相关特征，分析了包括拔蚀、空蚀、涡蚀和磨蚀四种高能溃决洪水侵蚀模式与发生条件，进一步归纳了高能溃决洪水典型侵蚀效应.最后结合国内外研究热点，从多方法揭示高能溃决洪水侵蚀机理与驱动因素、侵蚀运移作用下的“工具效应”与“覆盖效应”、高能溃决洪水与颗粒破碎的功能关系及侵蚀和构造抬升的耦合作用等方面对未来高能溃决洪水侵蚀研究进行了展望. 旨在深入理解高能溃决洪水的发生规律及其侵蚀过程，加深对此类灾难性极端地表事件与地貌演化之间关系的认识.Abstract: As an extreme surface event of high magnitude and low frequency, high-energy outburst flood has strong erosion and remodeling ability, which greatly affects the evolution of surface topography. In recent years, studies on high-energy outburst floods have gradually increased, however, the related erosion mechanisms and geomorphic effects still lack systematic understanding. We sorted out systematically of the relevant progresses of high-energy outburst floods at domestic and abroad, summarized three forms of erosion landforms and their features formed by high-energy outburst floods: large, medium and small, analyzed the erosion patterns and occurrence conditions of four types of high-energy outburst floods, including plucking, cavitation, eddy erosion and abrasion, and further integrated the typical erosion effects of outburst floods. Lastly, the study is combined with domestic and international research interests to reveal the mechanism and driving factors of flood erosion in terms of multi-methods, the "tool effect" and "cover effect" under the erosion and transport, the power and energy relationship between high-energy outburst flood and particle comminution, and the coupling effect of erosion and tectonic uplift.The aim is to provide an in-depth understanding of the occurrence patterns of high-energy outburst floods and their erosion processes, and to deepen the understanding of the links between such catastrophic extreme surface events and the evolution of the landscape.
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图 1 溃决洪水规模重建的两类模型（据Perron and Venditti, 2016修改）
Fig. 1. Two of models for outburst flood magnitude reconstruction(modified from to reference Perron and Venditti, 2016)
图 2 全球不同类型溃决洪水分布
数据来源于文献Tacconi Stefanelli et al.（2016）；Emmer（2017）；Liu et al.（2019）；Lützow and Veh（2022）
Fig. 2. Global distribution of different types of outburst floods
图 3 大尺度地貌
a为深谷（据Baker，2020修改）；b为丘盆状疤地（据Baker，2009a）修改）；c为峡谷网（据刘洋等，2021修改）；d为流线岛或丘（据Lamb and Fonstad，2010修改）
Fig. 3. Large-scale landforms
图 4 中尺度地貌
a为跌水瀑布（据Baynes et al.，2015b修改）；b为圆头峡谷（据Lamb et al.，2008修改）；c为壶穴（据Benito and Thorndycraft，2020修改）；d为块状基岩（据Carrivick and Rushmer，2006修改）
Fig. 4. Mesoscale-scale landforms
图 5 小尺度地貌
a冲槽（中小尺度）（据Lamb et al.，2014修改）；b为凹坑（据Richardson et al.，2005修改）；c为小坑洞（麻面）（据Lamb et al.，2008修改）；d为冲刷痕（据Lamb et al.，2014修改）
Fig. 5. Small-scale landforms
图 6 高能溃决洪水侵蚀模式示意图
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of high-energy outburst flood erosion modes
图 7 拔蚀的3种形式及其受力示意图
符号注释见表 2，虚线箭头为岩块运动的方向
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the three modes of plucking and their forces
图 8 3种拔蚀形式的临界启动关系
Fig. 8. Critical movement relationships of three types of plucking
图 9 溃决洪水水力特性、侵蚀地貌与空蚀关系
据Carling et al.（2017）修改，数据来源于Baker（2002）；Carrivick（2007）；Turzewski et al.，（2019）；Yang et al.（2022b）
Fig. 9. Relationship between hydraulic characteristics; erosion landforms and cavitation of outburst flood
图 11 高能溃决洪水侧向侵蚀导致河道宽度变化
数据来源于Cook et al.（2018）；Yang et al.（2021）；Zhang et al.（2022a）
Fig. 11. Changes in channel width caused by lateral erosion of high-energy outburst flood
图 12 溃决洪水侧向侵蚀斜坡及斜坡失稳过程
Fig. 12. Lateral erosion of slope toe and slope failure by outburst floods
图 13 堰塞-溃决对河流纵剖面的影响
据Ouimet et al.（2007）；周丽琴等（2019）修改
Fig. 13. Response of dam-break on channel profiles
表 1 溃决洪水侵蚀地貌类型
Table 1. High-energy outburst flood erosion landforms
地貌名称 地貌特征 形成原因 参考文献 大尺度地貌 深谷 宽度达数十上百千米，深度在数百米，多发现于火星表面 多次高能洪水不断侵蚀形成，其中拔蚀占主导 Baker and Milton(1974) 丘盆状疤地
（Butte and Basin Scabland，组合型）小型盆地与周围小丘相间分布，呈“结痂”状 洪水溃决后，将基岩表面松散土体运移，留下流线型残余沙土堆积体，此后由于受残余沙土堆积体影响，流场中生成垂向涡流结构，使得基岩受到向下侵蚀作用形成小型凹坑；随着侵蚀的加剧，小型凹坑规模逐渐扩大，最终与边缘未受侵蚀的基岩组合形成大型的丘盆状疤地 Baker(2009) 峡谷网
（组合型）由多条蜿蜒曲折大型深谷相互交错组合成的网状系统 由不同量级溃决事件侵蚀形成的深谷通道的组合 Ahmed et al.(2022) 流线岛或丘
（组合型）呈叶片状，长轴方向与水流方向一致，长度与面积多呈正比例关系 洪水侵蚀的残余地貌 Gupta et al.(2007); 王慧颖等(2020) 中尺度地貌 跌水瀑布（Cataracts） 呈“┐”型，上下两地层之间高差在几十米范围 洪水短时间内不断侵蚀瀑布上层边缘，同时冲刷下层地表，详见4.2 Baynes et al. (2015a，2015b) 圆头峡谷
（Amphitheater-headed/Box Canyons）头部高差较大，呈半圆形
多分布于火星、土卫六等行星洪水流动过程中，岩块受到拔蚀作用，顺水流方向倒塌，并逐渐往上游扩张 Lamb et al.(2008, 2014); Lapotre et al.(2016) 壶穴
（Hole）多分布于比降较大河段，形态呈类壶状凹坑 洪水演进时，在河道两岸形成平面涡流，洪水夹带的砾石、泥沙等磨蚀河道两岸，并逐渐向两岸推进 Bretz(1923a); Baker(1978a); Benito and Thorndycraft(2020) 块状基岩 节理裂隙发育，多呈块状或长条状 拔蚀残余地貌 Carrivick and Rushmer(2006) 阶梯-深潭系统
（组合型）由一系列干瀑布组合而成，比降较大（> 3%~5%） 洪水期间河床基岩在顺水流方向不断发生拔蚀（区别于山区小河道） Carling et al.(2009a); 余国安等(2011) 冲槽（Flutes，中小尺度） 长宽比较大，呈长笛型，尺寸在厘米~百米均有分布，通常长轴方向与水流方向一致 与夹带粘性沉积的洪水磨蚀过程有关 Hancock et al.(1998); Lamb et al.(2014); Baynes et al.(2015a) 小尺度地貌 凹坑
（Potholes、Groove）多分布于收缩、受冲刷的基岩河段，其长轴方向与水流方向呈一定角度 目前认为由垂直于岩面的涡流与洪水夹带的泥沙磨蚀形成 Richardson et al.(2005); Kadivar et al.(2021) 小坑洞
（麻面）尺寸在毫米至厘米级，分布密集，呈圆孔状，类似蜂窝状，朝向与水流方向一致 空蚀或磨蚀作用形成（空蚀占主导） Carling et al.(2017) 冲刷痕 呈长条或线状，多分布峡谷河道边缘且较为密集 洪水夹带泥沙沉积物冲刷侵蚀遗留的痕迹 Maizels(1997); 王慧颖等(2020) 
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表 2 不同形式的拔蚀临界公式
Table 2. Different forms of critical pluking equations
拔蚀形式 公式 公式注释 适用条件 参考文献 垂向拔除 $ {\tau }_{\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}}^{\mathrm{*}}=0.001\mathrm{ }5{\left(\frac{\eta }{L}\right)}^{-1}+0.002 $ $ {\tau }_{\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}}^{\mathrm{*}} $为临界Shield数（无量纲临界起动剪切力）；$ \eta $为岩块凸起高度；L为岩块长度 河床为平面（斜坡角$ \theta =0 $），未考虑壁面摩擦力 Coleman et al.(2003) $ {\tau }_{\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}}^{\mathrm{*}}=\frac{{\tau }_{\mathrm{b}}}{({\rho }_{\mathrm{r}}-{\rho }_{\mathrm{w}})\mathrm{g}H}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}\theta +2{\tau }_{\mathrm{w}}^{\mathrm{*}}\left(1+\frac{W}{L}\right)\right]}{{F}_{L}^{\mathrm{*}}\left[1+\frac{1}{2}{C}_{\mathrm{D}}{\left(\frac{u}{{u}_{\mathrm{*}}}\right)}^{2}\frac{\eta }{L}\right]} $ $ {\tau }_{b} $为临界起动剪切力；$ {F}_{L}^{\mathrm{*}} $为临界上举力；$ {\tau }_{w}^{\mathrm{*}} $为岩块两侧的临界应力（$ {\tau }_{\mathrm{w}}^{\mathrm{*}}=\frac{{\tau }_{w}}{\left({\rho }_{r}-\rho \right)\mathrm{g}W} $）；$ {C}_{\mathrm{D}} $为岩块的阻力系数；$ W $为岩块宽度；$ u $为平均流速；$ {u}_{{}^{\mathrm{*}}} $为床面剪切流速；$ \theta $为斜坡角；$ H $岩块高度 $ P\ll H $；考虑壁面摩擦力 Lamb et al.(2015) 倾倒式 $ {\tau }_{\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}}^{\mathrm{*}}=\frac{{\tau }_{\mathrm{b}}}{\left({\rho }_{\mathrm{r}}-{\rho }_{\mathrm{w}}\right)\mathrm{g}H}=\frac{\frac{L}{H}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}\theta \left[\frac{1}{2}\left(1-\frac{H}{L}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\theta \right)+{\tau }_{\mathrm{w}}^{\mathrm{*}}\right]}{\left[1+\frac{1}{2}{C}_{\mathrm{D}}{\left(\frac{u}{{u}_{\mathrm{*}}}\right)}^{2}\frac{\eta }{L}\right]\left(1+\frac{1}{2}{F}_{L}^{\mathrm{*}}\frac{L}{H}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}\theta \right)} $ 同上 单位宽度岩块，岩块被部分淹没 Lamb et al.(2015) $ \tau_{\mathrm{c}}=\frac{\frac{\left(F_{\mathrm{g}} \cos \theta-F_L\right)\left(\frac{1}{2}-\alpha\right)}{W H}-\frac{F_{\mathrm{g}} \sin \theta+F_{\mathrm{w}}}{2 L W}-\frac{H}{3 L} \Delta P}{\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{u}{u_*}\right)^2 \frac{\eta}{L}+1}$ $ {F}_{g} $为岩块重力；$ {F}_{L} $为上举力；$ {F}_{w} $为壁面摩擦力；$ \mathrm{\Delta }P $为岩块上下表面的压差力 考虑岩块宽度（W）；岩块全淹没，无空腔低压区 Hurst et al.(2021) 滑移式 $ H\cdot {S}_{\mathrm{e}}=\frac{W{\mu }_{\mathrm{s}}}{{\rho }_{\mathrm{w}}}({\rho }_{\mathrm{r}}-{\rho }_{\mathrm{w}}) $ $ {S}_{\mathrm{e}} $为河床比降；$ {\mu }_{\mathrm{s}} $为静摩擦系数 未考虑两侧摩擦 Hancock et al.(1998) $ \left({P}_{\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}}-{P}_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{s}}\right)\ge \left({\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}-\rho \right)\mathrm{g}H+\left({f}_{\mathrm{s}\left(\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\right)}+{f}_{\mathrm{s}\left(\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}\right)}\right)\frac{H}{L}+2{f}_{\mathrm{s}}\frac{H}{W} $ $ {P}_{\mathrm{b}\mathrm{s}}-{P}_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{s}} $岩块上、下表面的平均压差力；$ {f}_{\mathrm{s}\left(\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}\right)} $、$ {f}_{\mathrm{s}\left(\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}\right)} $和$ {f}_{\mathrm{s}} $分别为岩块上、下和侧面的单位面积上的摩擦力 未直接得到水流剪应力，平均压差力与平均剪应力成正比. 考虑两侧摩擦 Dubinski and Wohl(2013); Whipple et al.(2000) $ {\tau }_{\mathrm{o}}+\left({P}_{\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}}-{P}_{\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}}\right)\frac{H}{L}+\left({\rho }_{\mathrm{s}}-\rho \right)\left(\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{n}\theta \right)H\ge {f}_{\mathrm{b}}+2{f}_{\mathrm{s}}\frac{H}{W} $ $ {P}_{\mathrm{u}\mathrm{s}} $和$ {P}_{\mathrm{d}\mathrm{s}} $上、下游面上（沿滑动方向）的水压力；$ {f}_{\mathrm{b}} $为底部摩擦力；$ {\tau }_{\mathrm{o}} $为顶部水流剪切应力 考虑岩块宽度及上下游面上的水压力 Dubinski and Wohl(2013) $ {\tau }_{\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}}^{\mathrm{*}}=\frac{{\tau }_{\mathrm{b}}}{\left({\rho }_{\mathrm{r}}-{\rho }_{\mathrm{w}}\right)\mathrm{g}H}=\frac{\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}\theta (\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\varphi -\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\theta )+2{\tau }_{\mathrm{w}}^{\mathrm{*}}}{\left(1+\frac{1}{2}{C}_{\mathrm{D}}{\left(\frac{u}{{u}_{\mathrm{*}}}\right)}^{2}\frac{P}{L}\right)\left(1+{F}_{L}^{\mathrm{*}}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\varphi \right)} $ $ \varphi $为岩块的动摩擦系数 单位宽度 Lamb et al.(2015) $ {\tau }_{\mathrm{c}}=\frac{\left({\rho }_{\mathrm{r}}-{\rho }_{\mathrm{w}}\right)H\mathrm{g}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}\theta \left({\mu }_{\mathrm{s}}-\mathrm{t}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{n}\theta \right)+2{\tau }_{\mathrm{w}}\frac{H}{W}-\mathrm{\Delta }P\frac{H}{L}}{\frac{1}{2}{\left(\frac{u}{{u}_{\mathrm{*}}}\right)}^{2}\frac{\eta }{L}+\frac{1}{2}\frac{\left({u}_{\mathrm{t}}^{2}-{u}_{\mathrm{b}}^{2}\right)}{{u}_{\mathrm{*}}^{2}}\mu +1} $ $ {u}_{\mathrm{t}} $和$ {u}_{\mathrm{b}} $分别为上下面的流速 考虑岩块宽度 Hurst et al.(2021)
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