Environmental Impacts and Biotic Responses to Volcanism during the Permian⁃Triassic Transition
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摘要: 当今人类面临着大规模人为碳排放所导致的全球变暖，以及由此引发的一系列全球气候变化和生态危机.地质历史时期曾发生过多次大规模火山活动所导致的极热事件，并伴随着生物大灭绝，这为当前全球变暖问题提供了历史借鉴.约2.52亿年前的二叠纪‒三叠纪之交，发生了显生宙以来最大规模的生物灭绝事件，这一事件被广泛认为与大规模火山活动及其引发的环境变化密切相关.本文重点围绕近年来有关二叠纪‒三叠纪之交火山活动的研究进展，总结了岩浆脱气组分及其排放规模，包括二氧化碳、甲烷、二氧化硫、卤素和重金属，归纳了岩浆脱气直接引发的全球变暖、海洋酸化、火山冬天、酸雨、臭氧层破坏和重金属毒化等环境效应，评估了这些环境变化对海洋和陆地生物灭绝的具体贡献，这些讨论可加深对火山活动和生物灭绝关系的综合理解.此外，本文将二叠纪‒三叠纪之交的碳排放与现代工业碳排放进行了对比，发现现代碳排放速率和升温速率可能处于过去2.52亿年以来的最高值.Abstract: Humanity is facing global warming driven by large-scale anthropogenic carbon emissions, alongside a series of global climate changes and ecological crises. Throughout geological history, several hyperthermal events triggered by massive volcanic activity have occurred, often accompanied by mass extinctions. These geological events provide important analogs for modern global warming. The Permian-Triassic mass extinction (~252 Ma), the largest mass extinction event of the Phanerozoic, is widely attributed to massive volcanisms and the resulting environmental changes. This review examines recent research on volcanism during the Permian-Triassic mass extinction and summarizes the types and magnitudes of volcanic degassing, including CO2, SO2, halogens, and metals. We also summarize the environmental impacts of global warming, ocean acidification, volcanic winter, acid rain, ozone depletion, and metal poisoning directly triggered by volcanic degassing, and assess how these changes drove mass extinctions in both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between volcanism and mass extinction. A comparison of Permian-Triassic carbon emissions with modern anthropogenic carbon emissions reveals that modern carbon emission and warming rates may be unprecedented in the past 252 million years.
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Key words:
- magmatic degassing /
- large igneous province /
- hyperthermal event /
- carbon emissions /
- mass extinction /
- climate change
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图 1 二叠纪‒三叠纪之交火山活动的空间分布和时间模式
a. 二叠纪‒三叠纪之交西伯利亚大火成岩省和酸性火山活动空间分布，据Svensen et al.（2009、Vajda et al.（2020）、Chapman et al.（2022），古地理图修改自Scotese（2021）；b. 华南火山灰分布，修改自Xie et al.（2010）；c. 数值模拟的二叠纪末两阶段火山碳排放模式，据Wu et al.（2023）；牙形石带据Yin et al.（2014），全称见图 2；西伯利亚大火成岩省和华南酸性火山的时间分布据Burgess and Bowring（2015）、Wu et al.（2024a）
Fig. 1. The spatial distribution and temporal patterns of volcanic activity at the Permian-Triassic transition
图 3 二叠纪‒三叠纪之交火山活动的环境效应和生物响应的综合指标数据
数据来源：全球海相碳酸盐岩碳同位素，利用C3植物有机碳同位素重建的大气CO2浓度，以及低纬度地区牙形石氧同位素数据计算的海水表层温度，据Wu et al.（2021）；利用腕足硼同位素计算的海水pH值，据Jurikova et al.（2020）；海相综合Hg/TOC数据，据Dal Corso et al.（2022）；黔西滇东地区陆相地层Cu/TOC和石松类孢子的四分体比例，据Chu et al.（2021）；物种多样性纬度梯度，据Song et al.（2020）；生理上无缓冲生物的占比和物种多样性记录的两幕式灭绝，据Song et al.（2013）
Fig. 3. Comprehensive proxy data on the environmental effects and biological responses to volcanic activity at the Permian-Triassic boundary.
图 4 火山活动环境效应的时间尺度
修改自Wignall（2001），时间尺度数据更新自数值模拟实验，据Hönisch et al.（2012）、Black et al.（2014）、Black et al.（2018）、Grasby et al.（2020）
Fig. 4. The time scale of environmental effects of volcanism
图 5 二叠纪‒三叠纪之交火山脱气产物、环境和生物灭绝之间的关系
修改自Grasby and Bond（2023）
Fig. 5. The relationship between volcanic degassing, the environment, and mass extinction at the Permian-Triassic boundary
图 6 现代人为和二叠纪‒三叠纪之交火山的碳排放对比
a. 累计碳排放量和碳排放速率；b. 大气CO2浓度变化和温度变化速率；c. 二叠纪‒三叠纪之交和未来预测的升温趋势
Fig. 6. A comparison of modern anthropogenic carbon emissions with volcanic carbon emissions during the Permian-Triassic crisis
表 1 二叠纪‒三叠纪之交的碳排放数值模拟结果总结
Table 1. Summary of modeling results of carbon emissions at the Permian-Triassic transition
文献 模型 碳源 碳释放总量和速率 Payne et al., 2010 质量平衡公式 幔源CO2(-6‰) 13 200~43 000 Gt C Schneebeli-Hermann et al., 2013 有机质(-25‰) 15 000~20 000 Gt C Wu et al., 2021 有机质(-25‰)
热变质成因CH4 (-40‰)
生物成因CH4 (-60‰)3 900 Gt C
6 000 Gt C
12 000 Gt CBerner, 2002 箱式模型 生物成因CH4(-65‰)，幔源CO2(-6‰)和生产力下降 2 000 Gt CH4 Grard et al., 2005 箱式模型和能量平衡模型 幔源CO2(-5‰)和生产力下降 / Komar and Zeebe, 2016 箱式模型(LOSCAR) 幔源CO2 (-5‰) 和生产力下降 12 000 Gt C Payne and Kump, 2007 箱式模型 热变质成因碳(-25‰) 12 000 Gt C Clarkson et al., 2015 箱式模型 阶段1: 甲烷(-50‰) 或有机质(-25‰)或混合(-12.5‰)
阶段2: 幔源CO2和碳酸盐岩(0‰)阶段1：3 840~15 600 Gt C
阶段2：24 000 Gt CJurikova et al., 2020 箱式模型 阶段1: 幔源CO2 (-6‰)
阶段2: 热变质成因碳(-18‰)9 600 Gt C
96 000 Gt CDal Corso et al., 2020 C-Hg耦合箱式模型 幔源CO2 (-5‰) 和陆相有机质氧化(-25‰) / Cui et al., 2013 cGENIE模型 有机质(-25‰) 22 400 Gt C 热变质成因CH4 (-40‰) 11 500 Gt C 生物成因CH4 (-60‰) 7 000 Gt C Cui et al., 2021 幔源CO2和热变质成因碳(-15‰) 36 200 Gt C；5 Gt C/a Wu et al., 2023 阶段1: 幔源CO2 (-9‰)
阶段2: 热变质成因CO2和CH4 (-16‰)5 000 Gt C；0.2 Gt C/a
21 000 Gt C；0.7 Gt C/a
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