Cretaceous Tectonic Evolution and Cu-Au Metallogenesis in Northern Tibet
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摘要: 藏北白垩纪构造演化存在较大争议，严重制约了高原隆升和藏北世界级规模铜金资源成矿背景的准确认识. 为重建藏北白垩纪演化，对藏北西部吉普三队、松西和日土岩浆岩开展了综合研究. 结果显示，吉普三队和松西岩浆岩分别形成于~120和~110 Ma，均为Ⅰ型高钾钙碱性花岗岩，经历了复杂的熔融、同化、储存、均一化过程，是中特提斯洋俯冲作用的产物. 日土岩浆岩形成于~90 Ma，为富Nb型辉长岩和A型花岗岩组成的双峰式岩浆作用，是造山后伸展事件的产物. 从120~110 Ma至~90 Ma，藏北西部经历了由俯冲向碰撞转变的洋陆转换过程. 利用壳源岩浆岩反演其形成时的地壳厚度和壳源物质贡献度的结果表明，藏北西部在160~100 Ma具有正常的陆壳厚度（~30 km），但~100 Ma之后，地壳明显增厚，~90 Ma时，地壳厚度（~60 km）已超现今伊朗高原. ~110 Ma时，地壳物质贡献度达到峰值，预示着初始碰撞. 综合上述研究，结合区域晚白垩世磨拉石和混杂岩资料，提出中特提斯洋在白垩纪经历了从东向西的穿时洋陆转换，其中藏北西部洋陆转换发生在110~96 Ma. 中特提斯洋闭合后，拉萨-羌塘碰撞导致了藏北显著的地壳加厚和地表隆升，其隆升规模至少堪比现今的伊朗高原. 穿时洋陆转换及造山过程促使岩浆熔体氧逸度的升高，为藏北巨量铜金资源富集成矿创造了有利条件. 本研究从岩浆岩角度重建了藏北白垩纪洋陆转换与造山过程，为造山带形成演化和成矿作用研究提供了经典实例.Abstract: The Cretaceous tectonic evolution of northern Tibet remains highly controversial, significantly constraining our understanding of plateau uplift and the metallogenic background of world-class Cu-Au resources in this region. To reconstruct the Cretaceous evolution of northern Tibet, we conducted an integrated study on magmatic rocks from Jipusandui, Songxi, and Rutog in western Northern Tibet. Results indicate that the Jipusandui(~120 Ma) and Songxi(~110 Ma) intrusions are Ⅰ-type high-K calc-alkaline granites that underwent complex processes of melting, assimilation, storage, and homogenization, representing products of Meso-Tethys Ocean subduction. The Rutog magmatic rocks(~90 Ma) is characterized by a bimodal volcanic association composed of Nb-enriched gabbro and A-type granite, reflecting post-orogenic extensional tectonics. From 120~110 Ma to ~90 Ma, western Northern Tibet experienced an ocean-continent transition from subduction to collision. Inversion of crustal thickness and crustal contributions based on crust-derived magmas reveals that the crust of western Northern Tibet maintained a normal thickness (~30 km) during 160~100 Ma, but significantly thickened after ~100 Ma, reaching ~60 km by ~90 Ma-exceeding the present-day Iranian Plateau. The peak contribution of crustal materials at ~110 Ma suggests the onset of initial collision. Synthesizing results with regional Late Cretaceous molasse and mélange records, we propose that the Meso-Tethys Ocean underwent a diachronous ocean-continent transition from east to west during the Cretaceous, with the transition in western Northern Tibet occurring between 110 and 96 Ma. Following the closure of the Meso-Tethys Ocean, the Lhasa-Qiangtang collision resulted in pronounced crustal thickening and surface uplift, with an uplift magnitude at least comparable to that of the modern Iranian Plateau. This diachronous ocean–continent transition and subsequent orogenesis elevated the oxygen fugacityof magmatic systems, thereby creating favorable conditions for the enrichment and metallogenesis of giant Cu-Au resources in northern Tibet. From the perspective of magmatic records, this study reconstructs the Cretaceousocean-continent transition and orogenic processes in northern Tibet, providing a representative case study for understanding the orogenesis and metallogenesis in collisional orogens.
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图 1 （a）西藏及邻区构造格架简图（修改自Fan et al.2024a）; （b）藏北西部地质简图（修改自Hu et al., 2022 and Zhang et al., 2023）和（c）研究区松西、吉普三队和日土地区地质图
Fig. 1. (a) Tectonic framework of the Tibet, modified after Fanet al.(2024a); (b)Simplified geological map of the western segment of the Bangong-Nujiang Suture Zone in northern Tibet(revised from Hu et al., 2022 and Zhang et al., 2023); (c) Simplified geological map of the studied area, Songxi, Jipusandui and Rutogarea.
图 2 松西、吉普三队和日土地区岩浆岩野外照片和显微照片（正交偏光）
Pl. 斜长石；Kfs. 钾长石；Q. 石英；Px. 辉石；Amp. 角闪石；Bt. 黑云母
Fig. 2. Representative field photographs and photomicrographs of various magmatic samples from the Songxi, Jipusandui and Rutog area
图 3 藏北日土-松西地区岩浆岩锆石阴极发光照片、U-Pb年龄谐和图和锆石微量Th-U图解
红色圆圈与黄色圆圈分别代表锆石U-Pb定年分析点和Lu-Hf同位素分析点
Fig. 3. Cathodoluminescence images, zircon U-Pb concordia and Th-U plots of zircon grains for magmatic rocks from the Rutog-Songxi area, northern Tibet
图 4 （a）SiO2 vs. Zr/TiO2×0.000 1图解；（b）Mg# vs. SiO2图解；(c)K2O vs. SiO2图解; （d）FeOT/MgO vs. SiO2图解；（e）A/NK vs. A/CNK图解；（f）（La/Yb）N vs. YbN图解
A/NK=（Al2O3/101.94）/[（Na2O/61.982）+（K2O/94.2）]；A/CNK=（Al2O3/101.94）/[（CaO/56.08）+（Na2O/61.982）+（K2O/94.2）]. 藏北西部（120，110和90 Ma）中酸性岩浆岩数据（Li et al.，2018；Lei et al.，2020；Hu et al.，2022；Bai et al.，2024b；Gong et al.，2024及其中的参考文献）
Fig. 4. Diagram of (a)SiO2 vs. Zr/TiO2×0.0001;(b)Mg#vs. SiO2; (c)K2O vs. SiO2; (d)FeOT/MgO vs. SiO2; (e)A/NK vs. A/CNK; (f)(La/Yb)N vs. YbN
图 5 藏北日土-松西地区岩浆岩原始地幔标准化多元素蛛网图与球粒陨石标准化稀土元素配分图
藏北西部（120，110和90 Ma）中酸性岩浆岩数据来源同图 4
Fig. 5. Primitive-normalized muti-element spider diagram and chondrite-normalized REE diagram for magmatic rocks from the Rutog-Songxi area, northern Tibet
图 6 藏北日土-松西地区岩浆岩全岩Sr-Nd同位素和锆石Lu-Hf同位素图解
数据来源：中特提斯洋蛇绿岩数据（Wang et al.，2016；Tang et al.，2020）；中特提斯洋OIB数据（Wang et al.，2016；Fan et al.，2021）；南羌塘新生和古老下地壳数据（Hao et al.，2016）；藏北西部（120，110和90 Ma）中酸性岩浆岩数据来源同图 4
Fig. 6. (a) εNd(t) versus (87Sr/86Sr)i and (b) εHf(t) versus Age diagram for magmatic rocks from the Rutog-Songxi area, northern Tibet
图 7 (a) (Na2O+K2O)/CaO vs. (Zr+Nb+Ce+Y)图解; (b) TiO2/MgOvs. SiO2图解; (c) P2O2 vs. SiO2图解; (d) Al2O3 vs. SiO2图解; (e) La/Smvs. La图解; (f) Th/Nd vs. Th图解; (g) Rb vs. Sr图解; (h) Ba/Sr vs. Sr图解
藏北西部（120，110和90 Ma）中酸性岩浆岩数据来源见图 4；矿物缩写：Amp. 角闪石；Bt. 黑云母，Kf. 钾长石；Pl. 斜长石
Fig. 7. Diagram of (a) (Na2O+K2O)/CaO vs. (Zr+Nb+Ce+Y); (b) TiO2/MgOvs. SiO2; (c) P2O2 vs. SiO2; (d) Al2O3 vs. SiO2; (e) La/Smvs. La; (f) Th/Nd vs. Th; (g) Rb vs. Sr; (h) Ba/Sr vs. Sr
图 8 (a) Nb/U vs. Nb图解；(b) Zr/Y vs.Zr图解；(c) Th/Hf vs. Ta/Hf图解；(d) (La/Nb)PM vs. (Th/Nb)PM图解
Ⅱ2. 大陆边缘岛弧+大陆边缘火山弧；Ⅳ1. 陆内裂谷+大陆边缘裂谷拉斑玄武岩；Ⅳ2. 陆内裂谷碱性玄武岩；Ⅳ3. 大陆伸展带/初始裂谷玄武岩；原始地幔的标准化数据来源于Sun and McDonough（1989）；中地壳与下地壳的数据来源于Rudnick and Gao（2014）
Fig. 8. (a) Nb/U vs. Nb; (b) Zr/Y vs. Zr diagram, (c) (La/Nb)PM vs. (Th/Nb)PM, (d) Th/Hf vs. Ta/Hfdiagram
图 9 藏北西部洋陆过度多元素综合表征示意图
a. 班公湖-怒江缝合带（BNSZ）中晚侏罗世-白垩纪地层柱状图；b. 藏北西部中晚侏罗世-白垩纪中酸性岩浆岩的地壳厚度-年龄关系图，地壳厚度计算方法参考（Hu et al.，2017a，2020）；c. 基于沉积相环境预估水体深度图；d. 中晚侏罗世-白垩纪全球海平面演化图（参考Ruban，2015）；e. 利用藏北西部白垩纪岩浆岩中Ba/La、Th/Nb及Th/La元素，通过壳幔端元二元混合模拟估算的地壳贡献比例变化趋势图，选取的地壳端元（Ba=628×10-6，La=31.0×10-6，Th=10.5×10-6，Nb=12×10-6）及地幔端元数据（Ba=29.2×10-6，La=5.21×10-6，Th=0.404×10-6，Nb=5.24×10-6）分别参考Rudnick and Gao（2014）和Gale et al（2013）；f. 中特提斯洋西段白垩纪古地理重建示意图；数据来源于同图 4；缩写：BNSZ. 班公湖-怒江缝合带，SQT. 南羌塘地体，NLT. 北拉萨地体
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram showing the multi-element comprehensive characterization of ocean-continent transition processes in the northern Tibet
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